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Ophthalmology of the Ancients |
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Volume 1 |
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First Section. Egyptian ophthalmology |
1 |
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Bibliography |
3 |
§ 1 |
The earliest source of old Egyptian ophthalmology, |
3 |
§ 2 |
The clinical value of Papyrus Ebers, |
4 |
§ 3 |
The eye diseases represented in Papyrus Ebers, |
5 |
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Chapter 1. Ocular therapy in Papyrus Ebers |
6 |
§ 4 |
Forms of application of measures used for the eyes, |
6 |
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Eye wash |
6 |
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Salves |
6 |
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Compresses |
6 |
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Powder |
6 |
§ 5 |
Production and use of old Egyptian remedies, |
6 |
§ 6 |
Old Egyptian eye remedies, |
7 |
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Bile |
7 |
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Urine |
7 |
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Spittle |
8 |
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Milk |
8 |
§ 7 |
Eye make-up by the Egyptians, |
8 |
§ 8 |
Use of artificial eyes by the Egyptians, |
9 |
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Mention of artificial eyes in the Talmud |
9 |
§ 9 |
Surgical ocular therapy, |
10 |
§ 10 |
Characteristic old Egyptian ophthalmology, |
10 |
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Relationship of the heart to the eye |
11 |
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Relationship of Egyptian to Greek ophthalmology |
11 |
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Second Section. Jewish ophthalmology |
13 |
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Chapter Il. Biblical ophthalmology |
15 |
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Bibliography |
15 |
§ 11 |
Significance of the eye in Jewish antiquity, |
15 |
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Blindness in Jewish antiquity . |
15 |
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Priests and the eye |
16 |
§ 12 |
Ophthalmic anatomic knowledge in the Bible, |
16 |
§ 13 |
Eye diseases known in the Bible, |
16 |
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Eyes of Moses |
17 |
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Dryness in old age |
17 |
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The root word kahâh |
17 |
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The root word kûm |
17 |
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Explanation of the word Staar |
17 |
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The ailment of Ahijah |
18 |
§ 14 |
Treatment of sick eyes in the Bible, |
18 |
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Chapter III. Talmudic ophthalmology |
19 |
§ 15 |
The common characteristics of Talmudic ophthalmology, |
19 |
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§ 16 |
The anatomy and physiology of the eye in the Talmud, |
19 |
§ 17 |
The eye diseases of the Talmud, |
20 |
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Forms of eye disease |
20 |
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Symptoms of eye disease |
20 |
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Corneal diseases |
20 |
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Conjunctival diseases |
20 |
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Iris diseases |
20 |
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Lid diseases |
20 |
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Staar |
20 |
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Muscle disorders |
21 |
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Abnormalities of the eyeball |
21 |
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Abnormalities of vision |
21 |
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Malignant neoplasms |
21 |
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Ritual significance of eye diseases |
21 |
§ 18 |
The manner of the beginning of eye diseases, |
21 |
§ 19 |
Ophthalmic therapy, |
21 |
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Use of artificial eyes |
22 |
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Third Section. Indian ophthalmology |
23 |
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Bibliography |
25 |
§ 20 |
Indian ophthalmic anatomy, |
25 |
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The cornea is a kind of fat |
25 |
§ 21 |
Indian ophthalmic pathology, |
26 |
§ 22 |
Special knowledge of individual eye diseases, |
26 |
§ 23 |
Indian therapy, |
26 |
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The Indian Staar operation |
26 |
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Reference points for the time when Susruta may have completed his work |
26 |
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Fourth Section. Greek and Roman ophthalmology |
29 |
§ 24 |
Periods in the development of Greek and Roman ophthalmology, |
31 |
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First Period. Greek ophthalmology from the earliest beginning |
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up to the time of Thales of Melitus about 600 B.C. and the |
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appearance of nature philosophy |
31 |
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Bibliography |
31 |
§ 25 |
The first beginning of ophthalmology, |
32 |
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Consumption of eye of keen sighted animals for eye disorders |
32 |
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The goat as the discoverer of certain eye operations |
33 |
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The relationship of the gods to ophthalmology |
33 |
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The eye disorders of Diomedes and Lycurgus |
34 |
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Temple sleep |
34 |
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Inscriptions on votive tablets |
35 |
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Coan Prognoses |
37 |
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Second Period. Greek ophthalmology from the appearance of Greek nature philosophy up to the beginning of the Alexandrian school |
38 |
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Bibliography |
38 |
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Chapter IV. The anatomy of the eye in the pre-Alexandrian era |
40 |
§ 26 |
General characteristics of ophthalmic anatomy in the pre-Alexandrian era, |
40 |
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Alcmaeon |
41 |
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Speculative anatomy |
41 |
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Empiric anatomy |
41 |
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Comparative anatomy |
41 |
§ 27 |
Orbital cavity, |
42 |
§ 28 |
Eyebrows, |
42 |
§ 29 |
Eyelids, |
43 |
§ 30 |
Conjunctiva, |
44 |
§ 31 |
Eyeball, |
45 |
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Shape of the eyeball |
45 |
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Size and position of the eyeball |
45 |
§ 32 |
Skins of the eyeball, |
46 |
§ 33 |
Sclera, |
46 |
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The sclera is flesh |
46 |
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View of Aristotle about the sclera |
47 |
§ 34 |
Cornea, |
47 |
§ 35 |
Corneo-scleral fold, |
47 |
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False meaning of a word by Hirschberg |
48 |
§ 36 |
Choroid and iris, |
48 |
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Name of the iris |
49 |
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Color of the iris |
49 |
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The iris of the newborn |
50 |
§ 37 |
Pupil, |
50 |
§ 38 |
Retina, |
50 |
§ 39 |
Contents of the eyeball, |
51 |
§ 40 |
Aqueous humor, |
51 |
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Did Aristotle know the aqueous humor? |
51 |
§ 41 |
Lens, |
53 |
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Did Hippocrates know the lens? |
53 |
§ 42 |
Vitreous body, |
54 |
§ 43 |
Optic nerve, |
54 |
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Alcmaeon and the discovery of the optic nerve |
54 |
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Aristotle and the chiasm |
56 |
§ 44 |
Tear organs, |
56 |
§ 45 |
Extraocular muscles, |
57 |
§ 46 |
Developmental history of the eye, |
57 |
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Chapter V. Ophthalmic physiology in the pre-Alexandrian era |
58 |
§ 47 |
General characteristics; relation to philosophy, |
58 |
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Optical explanations of the nature philosophers were mostly speculative |
59 |
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Teaching of the atomists, Democritus and Lucretius |
59 |
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Teaching of Epicurus |
60 |
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Notion of Empedocles |
60 |
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Philosophy and practical medicine |
61 |
§ 48 |
Explanation of the nature of light and the organ of sight, |
62 |
§ 49 |
Diogenes of Apollonia, |
63 |
§ 50 |
The Pathagoreans, |
64 |
§ 51 |
Anaxagoras, |
65 |
§ 52 |
Empedocles, |
65 |
§ 53 |
The Atomists, |
66 |
§ 54 |
The Hippocratics, |
67 |
§ 55 |
Epicurus, |
68 |
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Mirror-images |
68 |
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Development of vision |
69 |
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Nature of light |
70 |
§ 56 |
Plato, |
70 |
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Representation of the act of seeing |
70 |
§ 57 |
Aristotle and the nature of light, |
72 |
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Role of the eyes in vision |
72 |
§ 58 |
The Stoics, |
74 |
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Darkness is a physical reality |
75 |
§ 59 |
The Skeptics, |
75 |
§ 60 |
Keen eyesight, |
75 |
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Keen eyesight according to Aristotle |
76 |
§ 61 |
The field of vision, |
77 |
§ 62 |
Accommodation, |
77 |
§ 63 |
Movements of the eyes, |
78 |
§ 64 |
Theories of color, |
78 |
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View of the Pathagoreans |
79 |
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View of Empedocles |
79 |
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View of Democritus |
79 |
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Development of the color sense |
79 |
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View of Plato |
80 |
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View of Aristotle |
81 |
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Chapter VI. Ophthalmic pathology in the pre-Alexandrian era |
81 |
§ 65 |
General ophthalmic pathology, |
81 |
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Influence of temperature |
81 |
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Position of glands in pathology |
82 |
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Significance of the brain |
82 |
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Factors in eye disease |
83 |
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§ 66 |
Special ophthalmic pathology, |
84 |
§ 67 |
Diagnostic, |
84 |
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Development of a diagnosis |
84 |
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The four basic factors for a diagnosis |
85 |
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Diagnosis in the pre-Alexandrian era |
86 |
§ 68 |
The pre-Alexandrian system of eye disorders, |
86 |
§ 69 |
Ophthalmia, |
87 |
§ 70 |
Diseases of the tear organs, |
90 |
§ 71 |
Corneal spots, |
92 |
§ 72 |
Position and movement anomalies of the eyeball, |
93 |
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Nystagmus |
94 |
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Hippus |
94 |
§ 73 |
Changes in the pupillary region, |
94 |
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Color of the pupil |
95 |
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Different pupillary colorations and their clinical significance |
95 |
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False concept of Schön regarding Staar |
96 |
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Size and form relations of the pupil |
97 |
§ 74 |
Diseases of the lids, |
98 |
§ 75 |
Disturbances of vision, |
99 |
§ 76 |
Weak vision, |
99 |
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Relations between the brain and the eye |
100 |
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Weak sight through wounds of the forehead |
100 |
§ 77 |
Accommodative anomalies, |
101 |
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Presbyopia |
101 |
§ 78 |
Refraction anomalies, |
102 |
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Fukula falsely explains the lxlùelv of the Hippocratics |
102 |
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Near-sightedness and Aristotle |
104 |
§ 79 |
Subjective-optical manifestations, |
104 |
§ 80 |
Anomalies of the visual fields, |
105 |
§ 81 |
Diplopja, |
105 |
§ 82 |
Nyctalopia, |
105 |
§ 83 |
Wounds of the eye, |
106 |
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Chapter VII. The therapy of pre-Alexandrian ophthalmology |
106 |
§ 84 |
General characteristics, |
106 |
§ 85 |
Local treatment with medications, |
109 |
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Preparation of eye remedies |
109 |
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The medicinal treasury of pre-Alexandrian ophthalmology |
109 |
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Aristotle's statement regarding the onion |
110 |
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Hippocratic recipes |
111 |
§ 86 |
Indirect medicinal treatment of diseased eyes, |
112 |
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Drainage through gums, nose, and intestinal tract |
112 |
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Clysters |
113 |
§ 87 |
General character of ophthalmic surgery, |
113 |
§ 88 |
Operation for suppuration, |
114 |
§ 89 |
Surgical treatment of prolapsed iris, |
114 |
§ 90 |
Surgical treatment of corneal spots, |
115 |
§ 91 |
Pterygium, |
116 |
§ 92 |
Lid surgery, |
116 |
§ 93 |
Removal of mucous membrane, |
116 |
§ 94 |
Abrasion of the inner lid surface, |
116 |
§ 95 |
Burning of the inner lid surface, |
117 |
§ 96 |
Operations for entropion, |
118 |
§ 97 |
Treatment before and after eye operations, |
119 |
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Wound treatment by the Hippocratics |
120 |
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Did the Hippocratics know antisepsis? |
120 |
§ 98 |
Indirect ophthalmic surgery, |
120 |
§ 99 |
Cutting open the scalp, |
121 |
§ 100 |
Burning of very different body sites, |
121 |
§ 101 |
Trepanation, |
122 |
§ 102 |
Bloodletting, |
122 |
§ 103 |
The cupping glass, |
122 |
§ 104 |
Physical ophthalmotherapy, |
123 |
§ 105 |
Regulation of light conditions, |
123 |
§ 106 |
Use of stenopaic apparatus, |
123 |
§ 107 |
Therapeutic use of optically polished glass, |
124 |
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Chapter VIII. The eye practitioner's position in the pre-Alexandrian era |
124 |
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Did the eye practitioner exist in the Hippocratic era? |
124 |
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Requirements of the practitioner by the Hippocratics |
126 |
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Demands placed on the surgeon |
126 |
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Third Period. Ophthalmology from the beginning of the Alexandrian era until the appearance of Galen |
129 |
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Bibliography |
129 |
§ 108 |
General characteristics, |
131 |
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Chapter IX. The anatomy of the eye in the era from the appearance of the |
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Alexandrian school to the appearance of Galen |
131 |
§ 109 |
General characteristics, |
131 |
§ 110 |
Eyebrows, |
133 |
§ 111 |
Eyelids, |
133 |
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Eyelashes |
134 |
§ 112 |
Shape, size, and position of the eyeball, |
134 |
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Derivation of the word oculus |
134 |
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Orbital cavity |
134 |
§ 113 |
The tunics of the eyeball, |
135 |
§ 114 |
Conjunctiva, |
135 |
§ 115 |
Sclera, |
136 |
§ 116 |
Cornea, |
137 |
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Meaning of the word squama |
137 |
§ 117 |
Choroid and iris, |
137 |
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Colors of the iris |
138 |
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Pupil |
138 |
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Why is the pupil black? |
139 |
§ 118 |
Corneo-scleral fold and ciliary body, |
139 |
§ 119 |
Retina, |
139 |
§ 120 |
Lens capsule, |
140 |
§ 121 |
The interior of the eyeball, |
141 |
§ 122 |
Anterior and posterior charnbers, |
141 |
§ 123 |
Aqueous humor, |
143 |
§ 124 |
Lens, |
144 |
§ 125 |
Vitreous body, |
144 |
§ 126 |
Optic nerve, |
145 |
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Relationship of the optic nerves to inner organs |
147 |
§ 127 |
Extraocular musculature, |
147 |
§ 128 |
Lacrimal apparatus, |
147 |
§ 129 |
Vessels of the eyeball, |
148 |
§ 130 |
Ocular developmental events, |
148 |
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Chapter X. The physiology of the eye in the era from the appearance of the Alexandrian school to the appearance of Galen |
149 |
§ 131 |
General characteristics, |
149 |
§ 132 |
The act of seeing and the theory of light from the Alexandrian era until the appearance of Galen, |
149 |
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Ancient theories of light |
150 |
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Relationship of philosophy to optics |
150 |
§ 133 |
Euclid's activity, |
152 |
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The eight optical principles of Euclid |
153 |
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Euclid's proof why an object can never be completely surveyed at the same time |
154 |
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Why an object at a certain distance can no longer be recognized |
155 |
§ 134 |
Views of Hipparchus about the act of seeing, |
156 |
§ 135 |
Lucretius, |
157 |
§ 136 |
Hero [Heron], |
157 |
§ 137 |
Cleomedes, |
157 |
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The optical nomenclature of Cleomedes |
158 |
§ 138 |
Plutarch, |
159 |
§ 139 |
The notion of visual acuity, |
160 |
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Euclid's attempt to explain the factors of visual acuity |
160 |
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Visual acuity is situated in the soul |
160 |
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Visual acuity is situated in the lens |
161 |
§ 140 |
Accommodation, |
161 |
§ 141 |
The visual field, |
162 |
§ 142 |
Functions of the extraocular muscles, |
162 |
§ 143 |
The theory of colors, |
162 |
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Chapter XI. The pathology of the eye in the era from the appearance of the Alexandrian school to the appearance of Galen |
163 |
§ 144 |
General characteristics, |
163 |
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Anatomy and humorism |
163 |
§ 145 |
Special ophthalmic pathology, |
164 |
§ 146 |
Classification of eye diseases according to Celsus, |
166 |
§ 147 |
Lippitudo, |
168 |
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Epiphora |
170 |
§ 148 |
Diseases of the eyelids, |
171 |
§ 149 |
Diseases of the conjunctiva, |
171 |
§ 150 |
Pterygium, |
172 |
§ 151 |
Diseases in the region of the lacrimal caruncle, |
172 |
§ 152 |
New growths of the conjunctiva, |
173 |
§ 153 |
Diseases of the comea, |
173 |
§ 154 |
Corneal ulcers, |
173 |
§ 155 |
Corneal spots, |
174 |
§ 156 |
Diseases of the iris, |
174 |
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Relationship to suffusio |
174 |
§ 157 |
Position and movement anomalies of the eyeball, |
175 |
§ 158 |
Squint, |
175 |
§ 159 |
Paralysis of the extraocular muscles, |
175 |
§ 160 |
Nystagmus, |
176 |
§ 161 |
Spasms of the extraocular muscles, |
176 |
§ 162 |
Diseases of the tear organs, |
176 |
§ 163 |
Changes in the entire eyeball, |
176 |
§ 164 |
Panophthalmitis, |
176 |
§ 165 |
Atrophy of the eyeball, |
177 |
§ 166 |
The doctrine of the grey Staar in the era beginning with the Alexandrians, |
177 |
§ 175 |
Disturbances of vision, |
187 |
§ 176 |
Diseases of the optic nerve in the Alexandrian era, |
189 |
§ 177 |
Sympathetic ophthalmia, |
190 |
§ 178 |
Anomalies of accommodation, |
190 |
§ 179 |
Over-exertion of accommodation, |
190 |
§ 180 |
Paralysis of accommodation, |
190 |
§ 181 |
Senile inefficiency of accommodation, |
191 |
§ 182 |
Anomalies of refraction, |
192 |
§ 183 |
Near-sightedness, |
192 |
§ 184 |
Far-sightedness, |
193 |
§ 185 |
Injuries of the eyes, |
193 |
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Chapter XII. Therapy of the eye in the era from the appearance of the Alexandrians to the appearance of Galen |
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§ 186 |
General characteristics, |
194 |
§ 187 |
Local medicinal treatment of the eye, |
197 |
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The ancient ocular pharmacopoeia |
198 |
§ 188 |
Ophthalmic remedies originating from the animal kingdom, |
199 |
§ 189 |
Ophthalmic remedies taken from the human body, |
200 |
§ 190 |
Ophthalmic remedies from the class of mammals, |
201 |
§ 191 |
Ophthalmic remedies from the class of birds, |
203 |
§ 192 |
Ophthalmic remedies from the class of amphibians, |
206 |
§ 193 |
Ophthalmic remedies from the class of fishes, |
207 |
§ 194 |
Ophthalmic remedies from the class of insects and spiders, |
208 |
§ 195 |
Ophthalmic remedies from the class of crustaceans, worms, molluscs, coral, and sponges, |
209 |
§ 196 |
Ophthalmic remedies from the plant kingdom, |
211 |
§ 197 |
Ophthalmic remedies from the mineral kingdom, |
244 |