Hugo Magnus : Ophthalmology of the Ancients

Volume 1

 

 

  

 Ophthalmology of the Ancients

  

  

 Volume 1

  

  

  

  

  

 First Section. Egyptian ophthalmology

 1

  

 Bibliography

 3

 § 1

 The earliest source of old Egyptian ophthalmology,

 3

 § 2

 The clinical value of Papyrus Ebers,

 4

 § 3

 The eye diseases represented in Papyrus Ebers,

 5

  

 Chapter 1. Ocular therapy in Papyrus Ebers

 6

 § 4

 Forms of application of measures used for the eyes,

 6

  

 Eye wash

 6

  

 Salves

 6

  

 Compresses

 6

  

 Powder

 6

 § 5

 Production and use of old Egyptian remedies,

 6

 § 6

 Old Egyptian eye remedies,

 7

  

 Bile

 7

  

 Urine

 7

  

 Spittle

 8

  

 Milk

 8

 § 7

 Eye make-up by the Egyptians,

 8

 § 8

 Use of artificial eyes by the Egyptians,

 9

  

 Mention of artificial eyes in the Talmud

 9

 § 9

 Surgical ocular therapy,

 10

 § 10

 Characteristic old Egyptian ophthalmology,

 10

  

 Relationship of the heart to the eye

 11

  

 Relationship of Egyptian to Greek ophthalmology

 11

  

 Second Section. Jewish ophthalmology

 13

  

  

  

  

 Chapter Il. Biblical ophthalmology

 15

  

 Bibliography

 15

 § 11

 Significance of the eye in Jewish antiquity,

 15

  

 Blindness in Jewish antiquity .

 15

  

 Priests and the eye

 16

 § 12

 Ophthalmic anatomic knowledge in the Bible,

 16

 § 13

 Eye diseases known in the Bible,

 16

  

 Eyes of Moses

 17

  

 Dryness in old age

 17

  

 The root word kahâh

 17

  

 The root word kûm

 17

  

 Explanation of the word Staar

 17

  

 The ailment of Ahijah

 18

 § 14

 Treatment of sick eyes in the Bible,

 18

  

 Chapter III. Talmudic ophthalmology

 19

 § 15

 The common characteristics of Talmudic ophthalmology,

 19

  

  

  

 § 16

 The anatomy and physiology of the eye in the Talmud,

 19

 § 17

 The eye diseases of the Talmud,

 20

  

 Forms of eye disease

 20

  

 Symptoms of eye disease

 20

  

 Corneal diseases

 20

  

 Conjunctival diseases

 20

  

 Iris diseases

 20

  

 Lid diseases

 20

  

 Staar

 20

  

 Muscle disorders

 21

  

 Abnormalities of the eyeball

 21

  

 Abnormalities of vision

 21

  

 Malignant neoplasms

 21

  

 Ritual significance of eye diseases

 21

 § 18

 The manner of the beginning of eye diseases,

 21

 § 19

 Ophthalmic therapy,

 21

  

 Use of artificial eyes

 22

  

  

  

  

 Third Section. Indian ophthalmology

 23

  

 Bibliography

 25

 § 20

 Indian ophthalmic anatomy,

 25

  

 The cornea is a kind of fat

 25

 § 21

 Indian ophthalmic pathology,

 26

 § 22

 Special knowledge of individual eye diseases,

 26

 § 23

 Indian therapy,

 26

  

 The Indian Staar operation

 26

  

 Reference points for the time when Susruta may have completed his work

 26

  

  

  

  

 Fourth Section. Greek and Roman ophthalmology

 29

 § 24

 Periods in the development of Greek and Roman ophthalmology,

 31

  

 First Period. Greek ophthalmology from the earliest beginning

  

  

 up to the time of Thales of Melitus about 600 B.C. and the

  

  

 appearance of nature philosophy

 31

  

 Bibliography

 31

 § 25

 The first beginning of ophthalmology,

 32

  

 Consumption of eye of keen sighted animals for eye disorders

 32

  

 The goat as the discoverer of certain eye operations

 33

  

 The relationship of the gods to ophthalmology

 33

  

 The eye disorders of Diomedes and Lycurgus

 34

  

 Temple sleep

 34

  

 Inscriptions on votive tablets

 35

  

 Coan Prognoses

 37

  

 Second Period. Greek ophthalmology from the appearance of Greek nature philosophy up to the beginning of the Alexandrian school

 38

  

 Bibliography

 38

  

 Chapter IV. The anatomy of the eye in the pre-Alexandrian era

 40

 § 26

 General characteristics of ophthalmic anatomy in the pre-Alexandrian era,

 40

  

  

  

  

 Alcmaeon

 41

  

 Speculative anatomy

 41

  

 Empiric anatomy

 41

  

 Comparative anatomy

 41

 § 27

 Orbital cavity,

 42

 § 28

 Eyebrows,

 42

 § 29

 Eyelids,

 43

 § 30

 Conjunctiva,

 44

 § 31

 Eyeball,

 45

  

 Shape of the eyeball

 45

  

 Size and position of the eyeball

 45

 § 32

 Skins of the eyeball,

 46

 § 33

 Sclera,

 46

  

 The sclera is flesh

 46

  

 View of Aristotle about the sclera

 47

 § 34

 Cornea,

 47

 § 35

 Corneo-scleral fold,

 47

  

 False meaning of a word by Hirschberg

 48

 § 36

 Choroid and iris,

 48

  

 Name of the iris

 49

  

 Color of the iris

 49

  

 The iris of the newborn

 50

 § 37

 Pupil,

 50

 § 38

 Retina,

 50

 § 39

 Contents of the eyeball,

 51

 § 40

 Aqueous humor,

 51

  

 Did Aristotle know the aqueous humor?

 51

 § 41

 Lens,

 53

  

 Did Hippocrates know the lens?

 53

 § 42

 Vitreous body,

 54

 § 43

 Optic nerve,

 54

  

 Alcmaeon and the discovery of the optic nerve

 54

  

 Aristotle and the chiasm

 56

 § 44

 Tear organs,

 56

 § 45

 Extraocular muscles,

 57

 § 46

 Developmental history of the eye,

 57

  

  

  

  

 Chapter V. Ophthalmic physiology in the pre-Alexandrian era

 58

 § 47

 General characteristics; relation to philosophy,

 58

  

 Optical explanations of the nature philosophers were mostly speculative

 59

  

 Teaching of the atomists, Democritus and Lucretius

 59

  

 Teaching of Epicurus

 60

  

 Notion of Empedocles

 60

  

 Philosophy and practical medicine

 61

 § 48

 Explanation of the nature of light and the organ of sight,

 62

 § 49

 Diogenes of Apollonia,

 63

 § 50

 The Pathagoreans,

 64

 § 51

 Anaxagoras,

 65

 § 52

 Empedocles,

 65

 § 53

 The Atomists,

 66

 § 54

 The Hippocratics,

 67

 § 55

 Epicurus,

 68

  

 Mirror-images

 68

  

 Development of vision

 69

  

 Nature of light

 70

 § 56

 Plato,

 70

  

 Representation of the act of seeing

 70

 § 57

 Aristotle and the nature of light,

 72

  

 Role of the eyes in vision

 72

 § 58

 The Stoics,

 74

  

 Darkness is a physical reality

 75

 § 59

 The Skeptics,

 75

 § 60

 Keen eyesight,

 75

  

 Keen eyesight according to Aristotle

 76

 § 61

 The field of vision,

 77

 § 62

 Accommodation,

 77

 § 63

 Movements of the eyes,

 78

 § 64

 Theories of color,

 78

  

 View of the Pathagoreans

 79

  

 View of Empedocles

 79

  

 View of Democritus

 79

  

 Development of the color sense

 79

  

 View of Plato

 80

  

 View of Aristotle

 81

  

  

  

  

 Chapter VI. Ophthalmic pathology in the pre-Alexandrian era

 81

 § 65

 General ophthalmic pathology,

 81

  

 Influence of temperature

 81

  

 Position of glands in pathology

 82

  

 Significance of the brain

 82

  

 Factors in eye disease

 83

  

  

  

 § 66

 Special ophthalmic pathology,

 84

 § 67

 Diagnostic,

 84

  

 Development of a diagnosis

 84

  

 The four basic factors for a diagnosis

 85

  

 Diagnosis in the pre-Alexandrian era

 86

 § 68

 The pre-Alexandrian system of eye disorders,

 86

 § 69

 Ophthalmia,

 87

 § 70

 Diseases of the tear organs,

 90

 § 71

 Corneal spots,

 92

 § 72

 Position and movement anomalies of the eyeball,

 93

  

 Nystagmus

 94

  

 Hippus

 94

 § 73

 Changes in the pupillary region,

 94

  

 Color of the pupil

 95

  

 Different pupillary colorations and their clinical significance

 95

  

 False concept of Schön regarding Staar

 96

  

 Size and form relations of the pupil

 97

 § 74

 Diseases of the lids,

 98

 § 75

 Disturbances of vision,

 99

 § 76

 Weak vision,

 99

  

 Relations between the brain and the eye

 100

  

 Weak sight through wounds of the forehead

 100

 § 77

 Accommodative anomalies,

 101

  

 Presbyopia

 101

 § 78

 Refraction anomalies,

 102

  

 Fukula falsely explains the lxlùelv of the Hippocratics

 102

  

 Near-sightedness and Aristotle

 104

 § 79

 Subjective-optical manifestations,

 104

 § 80

 Anomalies of the visual fields,

 105

 § 81

 Diplopja,

 105

 § 82

 Nyctalopia,

 105

 § 83

 Wounds of the eye,

 106

  

 Chapter VII. The therapy of pre-Alexandrian ophthalmology

 106

 § 84

 General characteristics,

 106

 § 85

 Local treatment with medications,

 109

  

 Preparation of eye remedies

 109

  

 The medicinal treasury of pre-Alexandrian ophthalmology

 109

  

 Aristotle's statement regarding the onion

 110

  

 Hippocratic recipes

 111

 § 86

 Indirect medicinal treatment of diseased eyes,

 112

  

 Drainage through gums, nose, and intestinal tract

 112

  

 Clysters

 113

 § 87

 General character of ophthalmic surgery,

 113

 § 88

 Operation for suppuration,

 114

 § 89

 Surgical treatment of prolapsed iris,

 114

 § 90

 Surgical treatment of corneal spots,

 115

 § 91

 Pterygium,

 116

 § 92

 Lid surgery,

 116

 § 93

 Removal of mucous membrane,

 116

 § 94

 Abrasion of the inner lid surface,

 116

 § 95

 Burning of the inner lid surface,

 117

 § 96

 Operations for entropion,

 118

 § 97

 Treatment before and after eye operations,

 119

  

 Wound treatment by the Hippocratics

 120

  

 Did the Hippocratics know antisepsis?

 120

 § 98

 Indirect ophthalmic surgery,

 120

 § 99

 Cutting open the scalp,

 121

 § 100

 Burning of very different body sites,

 121

 § 101

 Trepanation,

 122

 § 102

 Bloodletting,

 122

 § 103

 The cupping glass,

 122

 § 104

 Physical ophthalmotherapy,

 123

 § 105

 Regulation of light conditions,

 123

 § 106

 Use of stenopaic apparatus,

 123

 § 107

 Therapeutic use of optically polished glass,

 124

  

 Chapter VIII. The eye practitioner's position in the pre-Alexandrian era

 124

  

 Did the eye practitioner exist in the Hippocratic era?

 124

  

 Requirements of the practitioner by the Hippocratics

 126

  

 Demands placed on the surgeon

 126

  

  

  

  

 Third Period. Ophthalmology from the beginning of the Alexandrian era until the appearance of Galen

 129

  

 Bibliography

 129

 § 108

 General characteristics,

 131

  

 Chapter IX. The anatomy of the eye in the era from the appearance of the

  

  

 Alexandrian school to the appearance of Galen

 131

 § 109

 General characteristics,

 131

 § 110

 Eyebrows,

 133

 § 111

 Eyelids,

 133

  

 Eyelashes

 134

 § 112

 Shape, size, and position of the eyeball,

 134

  

 Derivation of the word oculus

 134

  

 Orbital cavity

 134

 § 113

 The tunics of the eyeball,

 135

 § 114

 Conjunctiva,

 135

 § 115

 Sclera,

 136

 § 116

 Cornea,

 137

  

 Meaning of the word squama

 137

 § 117

 Choroid and iris,

 137

  

 Colors of the iris

 138

  

 Pupil

 138

  

 Why is the pupil black?

 139

 § 118

 Corneo-scleral fold and ciliary body,

 139

 § 119

 Retina,

 139

 § 120

 Lens capsule,

 140

 § 121

 The interior of the eyeball,

 141

 § 122

 Anterior and posterior charnbers,

 141

 § 123

 Aqueous humor,

 143

 § 124

 Lens,

 144

 § 125

 Vitreous body,

 144

 § 126

 Optic nerve,

 145

  

 Relationship of the optic nerves to inner organs

 147

 § 127

 Extraocular musculature,

 147

 § 128

 Lacrimal apparatus,

 147

 § 129

 Vessels of the eyeball,

 148

 § 130

 Ocular developmental events,

 148

  

 Chapter X. The physiology of the eye in the era from the appearance of the Alexandrian school to the appearance of Galen

 149

 § 131

 General characteristics,

 149

 § 132

 The act of seeing and the theory of light from the Alexandrian era until the appearance of Galen,

 149

  

 Ancient theories of light

 150

  

 Relationship of philosophy to optics

 150

 § 133

 Euclid's activity,

 152

  

 The eight optical principles of Euclid

 153

  

 Euclid's proof why an object can never be completely surveyed at the same time

 154

  

  

  

  

 Why an object at a certain distance can no longer be recognized

 155

 § 134

 Views of Hipparchus about the act of seeing,

 156

 § 135

 Lucretius,

 157

 § 136

 Hero [Heron],

 157

 § 137

 Cleomedes,

 157

  

 The optical nomenclature of Cleomedes

 158

 § 138

 Plutarch,

 159

 § 139

 The notion of visual acuity,

 160

  

 Euclid's attempt to explain the factors of visual acuity

 160

  

 Visual acuity is situated in the soul

 160

  

 Visual acuity is situated in the lens

 161

 § 140

 Accommodation,

 161

 § 141

 The visual field,

 162

 § 142

 Functions of the extraocular muscles,

 162

 § 143

 The theory of colors,

 162

  

  

  

  

 Chapter XI. The pathology of the eye in the era from the appearance of the Alexandrian school to the appearance of Galen

 163

 § 144

 General characteristics,

 163

  

 Anatomy and humorism

 163

 § 145

 Special ophthalmic pathology,

 164

 § 146

 Classification of eye diseases according to Celsus,

 166

 § 147

 Lippitudo,

 168

  

 Epiphora

 170

 § 148

 Diseases of the eyelids,

 171

 § 149

 Diseases of the conjunctiva,

 171

 § 150

 Pterygium,

 172

 § 151

 Diseases in the region of the lacrimal caruncle,

 172

 § 152

 New growths of the conjunctiva,

 173

 § 153

 Diseases of the comea,

 173

 § 154

 Corneal ulcers,

 173

 § 155

 Corneal spots,

 174

 § 156

 Diseases of the iris,

 174

  

 Relationship to suffusio

 174

 § 157

 Position and movement anomalies of the eyeball,

 175

 § 158

 Squint,

 175

 § 159

 Paralysis of the extraocular muscles,

 175

 § 160

 Nystagmus,

 176

 § 161

 Spasms of the extraocular muscles,

 176

 § 162

 Diseases of the tear organs,

 176

 § 163

 Changes in the entire eyeball,

 176

 § 164

 Panophthalmitis,

 176

 § 165

 Atrophy of the eyeball,

 177

 § 166

 The doctrine of the grey Staar in the era beginning with the Alexandrians,

 177

 § 175

 Disturbances of vision,

 187

 § 176

 Diseases of the optic nerve in the Alexandrian era,

 189

 § 177

 Sympathetic ophthalmia,

 190

 § 178

 Anomalies of accommodation,

 190

 § 179

 Over-exertion of accommodation,

 190

 § 180

 Paralysis of accommodation,

 190

 § 181

 Senile inefficiency of accommodation,

 191

 § 182

 Anomalies of refraction,

 192

 § 183

 Near-sightedness,

 192

 § 184

 Far-sightedness,

 193

 § 185

 Injuries of the eyes,

 193

  

 Chapter XII. Therapy of the eye in the era from the appearance of the Alexandrians to the appearance of Galen

  

 § 186

 General characteristics,

 194

 § 187

 Local medicinal treatment of the eye,

 197

  

 The ancient ocular pharmacopoeia

 198

 § 188

 Ophthalmic remedies originating from the animal kingdom,

 199

 § 189

 Ophthalmic remedies taken from the human body,

 200

 § 190

 Ophthalmic remedies from the class of mammals,

 201

 § 191

 Ophthalmic remedies from the class of birds,

 203

 § 192

 Ophthalmic remedies from the class of amphibians,

 206

 § 193

 Ophthalmic remedies from the class of fishes,

 207

 § 194

 Ophthalmic remedies from the class of insects and spiders,

 208

 § 195

 Ophthalmic remedies from the class of crustaceans, worms, molluscs, coral, and sponges,

 209

 § 196

 Ophthalmic remedies from the plant kingdom,

 211

 § 197

 Ophthalmic remedies from the mineral kingdom,

 244